in our company, we automatically synchronize some SharePoint/Teams folders on certain Windows devices. Is there a similar solution for Jamf? Or does anyone have any ideas on how I could implement it best?
Yes, OneDrive on MacOS supports Folder Sync, you configure it with a Configuration Profile that can be deployed from any MDM including Jamf. One thing to note is you cannot use the AppStore verson of OneDrive as it does not support Folder Sync.
